Multi-Valent Ion Batteries (e.g., Zn²⁺, Mg²⁺)

Multi-valent ion batteries utilizing Zn²⁺ or Mg²⁺ as charge carriers are gaining traction due to their high theoretical capacities (820 mAh/g for Zn and 2205 mAh/g for Mg) and natural abundance. Aqueous Zn-ion batteries (AZIBs) have demonstrated impressive performance metrics, such as specific energies exceeding 300 Wh/kg and power densities up to 10 kW/kg, making them competitive with lithium-ion systems in certain applications. Recent work on Zn-MnO₂ chemistries has achieved energy efficiencies of >90% over 1000 cycles at current densities of 2 A/g, highlighting their potential for grid-scale energy storage.

The development of advanced cathode materials for multi-valent ion batteries is a key focus area. For instance, layered vanadium oxides (e.g., V₂O₅·nH₂O) have shown reversible capacities of ~400 mAh/g in AZIBs due to their open framework structure facilitating rapid ion diffusion. Similarly, Prussian blue analogs (PBAs) exhibit excellent cycling stability (>5000 cycles) owing to their robust crystal structure and minimal volume changes during ion insertion/extraction. These materials are particularly attractive for applications requiring long cycle life and high-rate capability.

Interfacial engineering plays a critical role in addressing challenges such as dendrite formation and parasitic reactions in multi-valent ion batteries. Recent innovations include the use of graphene oxide coatings on Zn anodes, which reduce dendrite growth by homogenizing ion flux and improve cycling stability by >50%. Additionally, electrolyte additives like polyethylene glycol (PEG) have been shown to suppress hydrogen evolution reactions (HER), enhancing coulombic efficiencies to >99%. These strategies collectively contribute to improving the performance and longevity of multi-valent ion batteries.

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