Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have achieved remarkable power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) exceeding 25.7% in laboratory settings, rivaling traditional silicon-based photovoltaics. However, their operational stability remains a critical challenge, with degradation rates often exceeding 10% within 1000 hours under continuous illumination. Recent advancements in interfacial engineering, such as the incorporation of 2D/3D heterostructures, have extended device lifetimes to over 2000 hours while maintaining PCEs above 23%.
The role of defect passivation in PSCs has been pivotal in reducing non-radiative recombination losses. Techniques like surface treatment with organic halides (e.g., phenethylammonium iodide) have reduced defect densities from ~10^17 cm^-3 to ~10^15 cm^-3, enhancing open-circuit voltages (Voc) by up to 50 mV. Additionally, the integration of lead-free perovskites (e.g., Cs2AgBiBr6) has mitigated toxicity concerns while achieving PCEs of ~12%.
Scalability and manufacturing processes for PSCs are being optimized through slot-die coating and vapor-assisted crystallization methods. These techniques have enabled the production of large-area modules (>100 cm²) with PCEs exceeding 18%, demonstrating a pathway toward commercialization. Furthermore, tandem configurations combining perovskites with silicon cells have achieved record-breaking efficiencies of 33.7%, surpassing single-junction limits.
Environmental impact assessments reveal that PSCs can achieve energy payback times (EPBT) as low as 0.35 years due to their low-temperature processing and thin-film nature. However, the use of lead remains a concern, prompting research into encapsulation strategies that reduce lead leakage to <0.1 ppm under harsh environmental conditions.
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