Sodium-ion batteries are gaining attention as a cost-effective alternative to lithium-ion batteries due to sodium's abundance (~2.36 wt.% in Earth's crust vs ~0.0017 wt.% for lithium). Hard carbon anodes are currently the most promising material showing capacities up to ~300 mAh/g but suffer from low initial Coulombic efficiency (~80%). Recent advancements in pre-sodiation techniques using Na-metal or Na-rich compounds have improved initial efficiencies to >90%.
Transition metal oxides like Na2Ti3O7 offer higher theoretical capacities (~200-300 mAh/g) but face challenges related to poor electronic conductivity (<10^-6 S/cm). The introduction of conductive additives like graphene or carbon nanotubes has increased conductivities by up to three orders of magnitude enabling stable cycling over hundreds of cycles at moderate rates (<1C).
Alloying materials such as Sn Sb P etc provide even higher theoretical capacities (>600 mAh/g); however they undergo large volume changes during sodiation/desodiation leading rapid degradation To address this researchers developed nanostructured alloys encapsulated within carbon matrices which reduce volume expansion rates below <50% while maintaining specific capacities above ~400m Ah / g after prolonged cycling periods .
Future work focuses developing hybrid systems combining hard carbons alloying materials into single electrode architectures thereby leveraging benefits both components Moreover computational modeling molecular dynamics simulations used predict optimal compositions morphologies maximize performance minimize degradation over time .
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