Single-Photon Avalanche Diode Arrays

Single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays are transforming low-light imaging with their ability to detect individual photons at picosecond temporal resolution. State-of-the-art SPAD arrays boast a photon detection probability (PDP) exceeding 60% at wavelengths from 400 nm to 900 nm while maintaining dark count rates below 100 Hz per pixel. These capabilities enable applications such as quantum key distribution and LiDAR for autonomous navigation systems.,Recent developments in SPAD array technology have focused on increasing pixel density and reducing crosstalk between adjacent pixels. A prototype array with >1 million pixels achieved a fill factor of >70% while limiting crosstalk to <1%. This advancement is critical for high-resolution imaging in low-light conditions

such as astronomical observations or deep-tissue fluorescence microscopy.

The integration of SPAD arrays with time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) systems has enabled unprecedented temporal resolution down to ~10 ps per photon event combined with spatial resolutions up to ~10 µm/pixel.. This combination allows precise depth mapping even through highly scattering media like fog or biological tissue.. For example,, LiDAR systems using SPAD arrays can resolve objects separated by just millimeters at distances up tp several kilometers.,Despite these advancements

challenges persist regarding scalability due tp complex fabrication processes involving epitaxial growth layers requiring precise doping profiles.. However

recent innovations like monolithic integration onto CMOS substrates reduce production costs by ~25%

making SPAD arrays more accessible tp commercial markets.."

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