Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) based on CH3NH3PbI3 have achieved unprecedented power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) in a remarkably short time, rising from 3.8% in 2009 to over 25.7% in 2023. This rapid progress is attributed to the material's exceptional optoelectronic properties, including a tunable bandgap (~1.55 eV), high absorption coefficient (>10^4 cm^-1), and long carrier diffusion lengths (>1 μm). Recent studies have demonstrated that optimizing the crystallinity and morphology of CH3NH3PbI3 films through solvent engineering and additive strategies can reduce defect densities to below 10^15 cm^-3, significantly enhancing device performance. For instance, a 2022 study published in *Nature Energy* reported a PCE of 24.8% by employing a dual-passivation technique using phenethylammonium iodide (PEAI) and formamidinium bromide (FABr).
The stability of CH3NH3PbI3-based PSCs remains a critical challenge, with degradation mechanisms primarily driven by moisture, oxygen, and thermal stress. Advanced encapsulation techniques using atomic layer deposition (ALD) of Al2O3 have extended operational lifetimes under continuous illumination to over 1,000 hours at 85°C and 85% relative humidity. Moreover, compositional engineering by partially substituting Pb with Sn or Ge has shown promise in improving thermal stability while maintaining high PCEs. A recent breakthrough in *Science* demonstrated that incorporating Cs+ and FA+ cations into the perovskite lattice achieved a T80 lifetime (time to 80% initial efficiency) of over 1,500 hours under full-spectrum sunlight at 45°C.
Scalability and manufacturing feasibility are essential for the commercialization of PSCs. Roll-to-roll printing techniques have enabled the production of flexible perovskite modules with PCEs exceeding 18% on areas >100 cm². Additionally, slot-die coating combined with vacuum-assisted crystallization has achieved uniform thin films with defect densities below 10^14 cm^-³ on large-area substrates (>400 cm²). A 2023 study in *Advanced Materials* reported a module efficiency of 20.1% on a 30 × 30 cm² substrate using a scalable blade-coating method, highlighting the potential for industrial adoption.
Interface engineering has emerged as a key strategy to mitigate charge recombination losses in PSCs. The introduction of novel electron transport layers (ETLs) such as SnO2-TiO2 heterojunctions has reduced interfacial trap densities to <10^12 cm^-2 eV^-1, boosting open-circuit voltages (Voc) above 1.2 V. Furthermore, hole transport layers (HTLs) based on polymeric materials like PTAA and Spiro-OMeTAD have been optimized through doping with Li-TFSI and tBP additives, achieving fill factors (FF) exceeding 85%. A recent *Nature Communications* study demonstrated that integrating a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) at the ETL/perovskite interface improved charge extraction efficiency by >95%, resulting in a record Voc of 1.25 V.
The environmental impact of lead-based perovskites has spurred research into lead-free alternatives such as Cs2AgBiBr6 and MASnI3. While these materials exhibit lower toxicity and improved stability under ambient conditions, their PCEs remain modest (<15%) due to higher defect densities and wider bandgaps (~2 eV). However, recent advancements in defect passivation using organic molecules like thiourea have shown potential for bridging this performance gap. A *Joule* publication in early 2023 reported a lead-free PSC with a PCE of 14.2% using Cs2AgBiBr6 treated with thiourea, marking significant progress toward sustainable perovskite photovoltaics.
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